Immunoescape the link between emphysema and lung cancer?

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been reported as a risk factor for lung cancer (LC) (1) independently of smoking and mainly related with the presence of emphysema, even in non-smokers (2). The mechanisms of this association are poorly understood. It has been hypothesised that the inflammation and oxidative stress present in COPD could facilitate carcinogenesis (3).